Nyaya Vaisheshika - notes

 The Nyaya Philosophy (Naiyayika thoughts):

1.              Propounded by Sage Gotama / Aksapada, is a philosophy primarily concerned with conditions of correct thinking and means of acquiring true knowledge of reality.  Very useful for developing logical thinking and rigorous criticism (Nyayavidya, Tarka sastra (Science of reasoning), Anviksiki (Science of critical Study). Aims at finding liberation, absolute cessation of all pain and suffering through Logic and epistemology.

 2.              Nyayasutra of Gotama, Nyaya Bhasya of Vatsayana, Nyaya Vartika of Udddyotakara, Vacaspatis Nyaya Vartika tatparyt, Udyana’s Nyaya Vartika tatparya parisuddi and Kusumanjali, Jayanta’s Nyaya Manjari are the important texts found in this Parampara over a period of time.  Modern school of nyaya is propounded by Gangesa viz., Tattvacintamani whichis flourished at Mithila and later Bengal with Navadvipa as main centre. This has a synthesis of Nyaya and Vaisesika schools of thought.

 3.              Theory of knowledge, Theory of physical world, theory of individual self and its liberation and Theory of God are four important aspects systematically developed by Naiyayikas over a period of time which is further divided into 16 philosophical topics / padarthas – Pramana, Prameya, samsaya, prayojanam dristanta, Siddantha, avayava, tarka, nirnaya, vada, jalpa, vitanda, hetvabhasa, Chala, jati and nigrahasthana.

Four different sources of true knowledge, pratyaksa, anumana, upamana and sabda. 

4.              The knowledge or Jnana or cognition is manifestation of objects which is generated out of anubhava (presentative cognition) and Smriti or memory (representative cognition).  This can be either Yathartha or Ayathartha (Prama or Aprama).

 5.              Prama is divided into perception, inference, comparison and testimony while Aprama is divided into Samsaya, bhrama or viparyaya and hypothetical argument (tarka).  Memory is not a Prama since it is a non-representative knowledge involving reproduction of past knowledge which may or may not be valid or non-valid since it’s is only a reproduction of some previous valid or invalid knowledge.

 6.              Perception is considered as true form of cognition since the same is produced by sense-object contact and which is confirmed by a revisiting the object.  The objections for this is that there could be a false perception due to conditioning or incorrect sense contact / for eg. rajju sarpa.

 7.              Perception can be laukika or alaukika; usual sense contact generates through normal sense organs.  Alaukika is conveyed through an unusual medium. Perception can be external and internal and there are six types of perception Caksusa, srautra, sparsana, rasana, ghranaja and manasa apperception (five senses and mind). 

 8.              The mind is considered as internal organ (antarendriya) which perceives such qualities of the soul as icha, dvesa, prayatna, sukha, dukkha and it is not made of any material elements.  Ordinary perception can also be classified as Nirvikalpa (Indeterminate) or Savikalpa (determinate) due to character of perceptual knowledge.

 9.              Alaukika are three types, Samanya lakshana, jnana lakshana and Yogaja. Samanya is an ordinary perception which is known to most of us in general. Jnana lakshana is extraordinary perception about qualities ice is cold, grass is soft etc., Sensation or perception of senses become so closely associated to become integral part of single perception.  Seeing sandal wood we may perceive fragrance, which is due to past olfactory experience, which revived past sauraba jnana.  The Yogaja is another extraordinary perception which is intuitive, supernatural power through Yogic science, by those who attained spiritual perfection due to sadhana.

10.           Ordinary perception is of three types, savikalpa (deteminate) and nirvikalpa (indeterminate) alongwith pratyabhijna (recognition).  Savikalpa is cognition of objects alongwith its qualities/nature and more of judgmental cognition.  Nirvikalpa is freee from such judgemets and an indeterminate perception. (For eg. Taking bath on a busy day without observing the nature of water).  Pratyabhigna is re recognition of some object which is already cognised before.

 11.           INFERENCE (Anu mana – after - knowledge) literally meaning a cognition which follows some other knowledge.  Hill is fiery, because it smokes and whatever smokes is fiery.  Devadatta is mortal because he is man and all men are mortal. There is an invariable concomitance (vyapti) between the two leading to an inferential knowledge of the object/cause.

 12.           Paksha, Sadhya and linga (Paksha, Sadhya and hetu (Hill, fire and smoke) – subject, object and the universal reason for relating Sadhya to paksa) are three constituents of inference. Ppaksha - minor term or subject, Sadhya which we want to prove and linga being the relation or causation or middle term which indicate the cause.

 13.           Naiyayikas differ to the extent that the inference as a conclusive proof, must be stated in the form of five propositions called avayavas or members being

Pratigna, hetu, udaharana, upanaya and nigamana.

Ram is mortal; Because he is a man; All men are mortal eg.,…; Ram also is a man

and therefore, Ram is mortal.

Thus, in the above sequence, first proposition asserts something followed by second proposition which states reason for the first assertion which is followed by Universal example showing connection between reason and the asserted fact, supported by known instances.  Upanaya is application of such proposition to the present case and finally Nigamana is the conclusion drawn from preceding propositions.

14.           Vyapthi is the logical condition of inference depending on the previous knowledge of Sadhya as related to paksha. Vyapthi is a state of pervasion implying a correlation between two facts vyapya and vyapaka, one accompanying other.  All smoky objects are fiery and all fiery objects are not smoky (Red hot iron ball).

 15.           Vedantins also accept this vyapthi (Universal proposition) as a result of induction - Vyabhichara darsane sati sahacharadarshanam – two things co-exist and there is no exception to their relation). Charvakas do not agree for such inference as valid proof.

 16.           Fallacies of inference – Savyabhichara, Virudda, Saatpraripaksha, asiddha, Badhita. When the middle term is not uniformly related to major, it gives incorrect inference.  A contradictory middle give opposite inference due its nature.

 17.           Upamana or comparison – third source of valid knowledge accepted by Naiyayikas. Sanjnasanjni samabandha – told by an authoritative source giving description of objects of particular variety and applying to other similar objects fitting into such description, as a valid source of information. Carvakas do not agree as a Pramana since it cannot give true knowledge of specific object; but budhist recognise upamana as valid but consider it as perception and testimony. Vaisesika and sankhys also do not agree and consider that it is not a distinct type of knowledge.  Mimamsaakaras and Vedanthins explain it in different way.

 18.           Sabda is verbal knowledge which is valid testimony of a trustworthy person who knows the trth and speaks the truth for he guidance of other person.  They can be drstartha or adrstartha, assertions relating to ordinary perceptible objects and the other being assertions relating to super sensible realities by scientists, saintly persons.  They can be laukika or vaidikkka (secular and scriptural).

 19.           Logical structure of sentence has four conditions – Akanksa, Yogyata, Sannidhi and Tatparya.  Expectancy of a sentence gives complete meaning, yogyata mutual fitness between constituent words, sannidhi or asatti is third condition which gives continuity, tatparya gives intended meaning among all other meanings of a word.

NYAYA THEORY OF PHYSICAL WORLD – PRAMEYA (World of objects of knowledge):

20.           As already seen, self, the body, senses and their objects, knowledge, mind, pravritti (activity), dosa (mental imperfections), pretyabhava (rebirth), phala (pleasure and pain), duhkha (suffering), apavarga (absolute freedom from sufferings). Physical world is theproduct of four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire and air. Non physical being kala and dik (time and space) and Naiyayikas accept the more advanced Vaisesika theory of physical world. Both take a realistic view of self. 

 21.           Charvakas have materialistic conception of the self being living body with attribute of consciousness; while Vedantins / Vishistadwaita Vedantha, self is One, unchanging and self shing consciousness / conscious subject called ego or the I, and these views are idealistic.

 22.           The Naiyayikas-Vaisesika schools gives theory of God and connects with doctrine of liberation. The idea of God is ultimate cause of creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. World is created out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls which co-exist, into a moral world in which individual selves enjoy / suffer according to merit and demerit of their actions.  God being the first efficient cause of the world and not its material cause, also preserver and destroyer of world if required.  He is one, infinite, and eternal guided in His activities by moral considerations of merit and demerit of human actions, being a Karmaphaladata.

 23.           Ten proofs of Existence of God:- Causal argument (intelligent cause): All objects are formed by com bination of atoms and must have a cause.  Being made up of parts (Savayava and avantaramahattva) and Space, time, ether and self are not effects since they are infinite substances not made up of parts.  

 24.           Adrshta – differences in merits/demerits of men has to be having a cause and its effects are borne. Sum total of all our past actions and the merits/demerits caused produces present joys/sorrow.  This is not possible without an intelligent principle / agent to produce consequences.

 25.           Authoritativeness of Scriptures, testimony of Sruthi, -  due to apta pramanya like that of a Scientist proving medicines. Just like we accept whole science as authoritttive and valid. Individiual cannot be the author since suprmundane realities and transcendent principles in Vedas cannot be the objects of knowledge of any ordinary individual.

 26.           Critical view of this theory – why believe ?  traditional proof only.  Kant says that it wont prove. Ontonlogicla proof is most perfect being and cosmological argument from sensible world as a finitie conditioned reality and teleological proof is inadeauate.  Cant be proved by argument, mere reasoningorlogical argument is not proved, no circular reasoning,

 27.           Conclusion:  The importance of Nyaya system lies in its methodology and logic on which it builds philosophy.  One of the charges against Indian philosophies is that it is based on religious authority and dogmas and not critical.  Nyaya philosophy repudiates this charge.  Its also a pluralistic realism based on extreme test of logic and reasoning. God as an intelligent cause and not a material cause

THE VAISESIKA PHILOSOPHY:

Sage Kanada , (Uluka) Aulukya system -an ascetic who lived on grains of corn gleaned from the field.

28.           Prasasta pada’s Padartha Dharma Sangrha is a Bhashya and Sankar as well as Ravana has written commentary.  Vyomasiva’s Vyomavathi, Udayanas Kiranavali, Sridharas Nyaya kndali, Vallabhacharya’s Nyaya Lilavathi, Bhaskara’s Tarka Kaumudi, Visvanathas Bhasa Paricheda and Siddantha muktavali are some of the literature.

 29.           Naiya nd Vaisesika are allied systems (Samananatara) same end in view, ignorance is the cause, liberation possible with right knowledge of reality. Nyaya has four independent sources of knowledge and Vaisesikas accept only two viz., perception and inference.  Nyaya gives sixteen padarthas and Vaisesikas give ony seven padarthas.  Dravya (substance), guna )quality), Karma or action, samanya or generality, Visesa or particularity, samavaya or relationof inheritance and abhava or non existence.

 30.           Dravya or substance has nine varieties earth, water, light, air, akasa, time, space soul and mind.  First five are physical elements and possess pecular quality (visesa guna) sensed by external sense.  Smell of earth, taste of water, colour of lifht, touch of air, sound ofakasha as experience  by five senses. 

 31.           The four substances are eternal or non eternal (atoms being nitya and combination of atoms is non eternal). Atoms cannot be produced since to produce we have to combine parts. Nor it can be destoued and they are smallest parts of things which are eternal.

 32.           Fifth physical substance is ether which cannot be perceived in normal sense.  It is all pervading bearer of the quality of sound and inferred from perception of that quality. By inference there must be another substance called Akasha. Space and time (Dik and Kala) are imperceptible substances like Akasha, as it is our cognition of hear and there, time is the cuse of our cognition of past, present and future. Although one and indivisible, akasha, dik and kala are distinguished into different subsances conventionally since they are known by certain limiting conditions (Upadhi) whichaffect our knowledge of them.

 33.           Atma is eternal and all pervading and there are two kinds of souls.  Individual and supreme (jeevatma and paramatma).  The later is one and inferred as creator.  Individual self is not one but many beinf different in different bodies.

 34.           Manas is a substance, internal sense (antarendriya) perception of individual soul and its qualities.  It is atomic and cannot be perceived. Just like we need external sense organs to perceive, we have internal cognition through mind. Though externala senses are in conact, we perceive one by one and in a specific order which is due to existence of Mind.  It is the organ through which soul attends to objects.

 35.           Quality or Guna is another substance which has no quality in in itself and it is a constituent cause of things. Twenty four categories of Qualities, rupa, rasa, Gandha, Sparsha, sabda, sankhya, parimana (magnitude), prthaktva (distinctiveness), samyoga (conjunction, vighag, paratva (remoteness), aparatva, budhi or cognition, sukha, dukkha, icha, dves, prayatna, gurutva, dravatva (fluidity), Sneha, samskara, dharma, adharma.  They have further divisions also.

 36.           Karma is physical movement and like quality it belongs only to substance, but different from both.  It supports both quality and action.  Five kinds of action or movement Utksepana, avaksepana, akunchana, prasarana, gamana (upward, downdard, contraction expansion orlocomotion). Movements which can be perceived are only treated as action.

 37.           Generality or samanya common class possessing common nature. Group of such things commonality is observed.  It also means universal nature of a class. Men, cows and swan for eg.  Swalakshana is the basis and the idea of samaeness is due to a certain character which does not stand for any positive essence.  They do not possess any common essence but they are different from all other animals that are not cows.  Name with a negative connotation.

 38.           As per Nyaya Vaisesikas, the realistic theory of the Universal (nitya ) entities which are distinct but in herein same universal as a class (anekanugata).  The notion of sameness is a general essentiality and real as well as eternal. They may be different individually but as a class, they are same.

 39.           Visesha is the extreme opposite of Samanya and the particularity is the unique individuality of substances which have no parts and are therefore eternal.  Eg given are Space, time, akasa, minds, soula and atoms of earth, water, light and air.  Te difference of their parts cannot be explained since they have no parts at all.  However, they are similar in other respects like atoms of erth, air, water, light. Paritcularities are eternal and distinguished by themselves.

 40.           Inherence or Samavaya which include Samyoga or conjunction which is temporary or non eternal relation between two objects.  The other type of conjunction is permanent  etwdeen two entities.  Cloth and thread, rope nd thread are inseparable for maintaining the entity a a whole. Samavaya is perceptible according to Nyaya and not as per vaisesika.

 41.           Non existence or abhava.  All the six positive cateroies are excluded and negative caterogy which does  not come under any of these categories.  Reality of non existence cannot be denied.  Sky night does not have sun and existence of moon and stars. Non existence is also considered as a possible object of knowledge and accepted by Kanada.

 42.           Abhava can be sargabhava and anyonyabhava.  Absence of something in something else is samsargabhava. Three types are Pagabhava non existence of a thing before its producton (house and bricks).  Dhvamsabhava non existence of a thing on account of its destruction. Atyantha bhava is the absolute non exitence of a connection between two things for all time eg., Non existence of colour in air.

 43.           Anyonyabhava is that one thing is not another thing.  Difference of one thing from another thing.  A table is different from chair.  Table does not exist as a Chair.  Samsargabhava arises due to absence of connection, but anyonya bhava is absence of one thing as another.

Creation and destruction of the world

44.           Though its considered as an atomic theory of creation of world, Vaisesikas are guided by the philosophy that the world including physical nature is a moreal stage for education and emanicipation of individual souls.  The orign and destruction of world is explained not in a sense that western materialistic philosophy as its guided by only a mechanical law. 

 45.           In Vaisesika philosophy five out of nine substances are not and cannot be reduced to material atoms and there is a phase /ultimate source of actions found in the will of Supreme being.  The eternal constituents of universe are four kinds of atoms and five substances of akasa, space, mind and soul.  The combination of atoms as dyad or dvyanuka, tryanuka or triads also called as trasarenu is minimum perceptible object. 

 46.           All finite objects of world are composed of four kinds of atoms in form of dyads, triads and other larger compounds.  The world or universe is a system ofphysical things and living beings having bodies with senses and psssessing mind, intellect and egoism.  All these exist and interact with one another, in time, space and akasa.  Living beings are souls who enjoy or suffer as per virtues.  A moral order on the basis of Karma is the cause.

 47.           The process of creation is will of supreme lord (Maheswara) who is the ruler of the whole universe and gods creative will on the basis of merit/demerit (Adrsta) acquired by individual souls is the cause of Universe.  The destruction of the Universe is also to remove sufferringof all living beings and period of creation followed bya a state of destruction which will make one complete cycle called Kalpa which is repeating itself eternally. Most of the orthodox system believe in the theory of Kalpas being recurring period of creation and destruction.

Conclusion:

48.           Like Nyaya system, Vaisesika is a realistic philosophy which combines pluralism with theism.  It trces the variety of the objects of the world to the combination of material atoms of different kinds and qualities.  But the creation of world out of combination in eternal time and space has reference to the moral life of individual selves. 

 49.           World is created and destroyed by God and proper utilisation of moral destiny. Souls is an independent substance of which consciousness sis an accidental property. Vaisesika idea of God a wholly transcendent to and separate from man is not deeply religious and concept of communion with God is negated.

 50.           The special contribution of Vaisesika is comprehensive conception of Padartha or objects of the world, its classification and its atomic cosmology.  Distinction between positive and negative objects, generality and particularity are brilliantly analysed. The Vaisesika’s harmonise the atomic theory with moral and spiritual outlook of life and theistic faith in God as the creator and moral governor of the world.