Indian Philosophy - notes

 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY:

In an etymological sense, philosophy means “love of knowledge” and it enquires into various queries such as; what is the real nature of man, what is after end of this life, what is the nature of this world, is there a creator and how man should live in the light of knowledge of himself, the world and God…These are some of the many problems, which the Philosophy deals with. 

Man being a rational animal, tries with a conscious plan and purpose rather than work by instinct alone using his gift of intellect and tries to lead life in the light of his knowledge.  Desire for knowledge springs from this rational nature of human mind.  The Vision of Truth “Darshana” is the Indian philosophy aiming at freeing the man from entanglements and lead for a higher purpose.

Western Philosophy differs in methods of philosophical enquiry and the processes, though the basic problems and chief solutions have striking similarities. In Western philosophy has main branches (a) Meta physics, general problems regarding reality, man, nature and God (b) Epistemology or theory of knowledge (c) Logic and (d) ethics.   Indian philosophy does not discuss each of these aspects separately and every problem is discussed from all possible approaches, meta physical, ethical, logical, psychological and epistemological, which gives a synthetic outlook for the Indian Philosophy.

Indian Philosophy adapted broadly a rational approach for search of Truth and in spite of different schools, each school took care to learn the view of all others.  This spirit led to formation of a method of philosophical discussion. 

A philosopher has to first state the view of his opponents before he formulated his own theory.  This statement of opponent’s view is called Prior view (Purva paksha) followed by the refutation (Khandana) of this point of view and later comes the statement and proof of the philosopher’s own position is known as subsequent view (Uttarapaksha) or conclusion (Siddhantha).  Sarva Darshana Sangraha of Madhavacharya presents in one place views of all schools of philosophy including views of atheists and materialists like Carvakas, unorthodox thinkers like Baudhas and Jainas.

Six schools or Darshanas are Mimamsa, Vedantha (also known as Uttara Mimamsa), Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisheshika.  They are Orthodox (astika) darshanas because they believe in Veda Pramana though some of them do not believe in existence of God or a Creator (Sankhya and Mimamsa).  The other Heterodox (Nastika) darshanas are materialists like Carvakas, Baudhas and Jainas being not accepting the authority of Vedas.

The Vedic tradition has two distinct schools, ritualistic and speculative (Karma and Jnana) represented by Mimamsakaras and Vedantins following a elaborate and speculative philosophy.  They are also referred as Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa.  The journey of philosophical pursuit proceeds from known to known and some hold that it should be based on ordinary, normal experience (as per Nyaya and Vaisesika, Sankhya and Charvaka).  Baudha and Jaina also to some extent subscribe this view.

As against Western Philosophy which evolved in succession, each school predominating till another comes and replaces it, in Indian philosophy we find that different schools, flourish together during many centuries and pursued parallel course of growth.  Probably, this is due to the fact that in India philosophy was a part of life and it was handed over to succeeding generations of followers. 

Vedas, the earliest literature of philosophy influenced directly or indirectly all the schools of thought in a very big way.  The oral traditions flourished from generations and it took the form of Sutras or aphorisms to carry the ideas.  Brahma sutras of Badarayana (Veda Vyasa) contain such systemized knowledge / philosophical teachings of different Vedic works chiefly Upanishads. 

The Sutra karas of Mimamsa, Jaimini, Nyaya sutras of Gotama for Vaisesika, Sutras of Kanada for the Yoga, Sutras of Patanjali for the Yoga.  Similarly, sutras of Kapila for Sankhya are seen. The literature being in a cryptic manner, many Bhashya karas wrote Commentaries and interpreted the sutras as per their respective stand point of view.

The entire knowledge as above is having a common goal i.e., Liberation as accepted all schools except Charvakas. Each of these Schools prescribe certain detailed methodology to be adapted by its followers to achieve the ultimate goal. Free thinking is also encouraged in such process.

Brief about each system of philosophy (Darshanas)

Charvaka System:

Charvakas are materialists who do not believe in God, life after death, Karma siddantha and authority of Vedas.  According to them, direct perception is the only valid source of knowledge and all other pramanas are not acceptable as they believe only what is immediately known through perception.  Permanence of soul or God is not believed as there is no direct proof.

There are only four elements in the material world which can be perceived and there is nothing like an immaterial soul and the Consciousness is only a quality of the living body which is a product of matter. The qualities are also developed /changed under different conditions and by a combination of mater (Beetel leaf lime chewed together, fermentation of the molasses leading to change in quality).

The basic theory is that we should get maximum out of life and avoid pain as far as possible.  There is no other higher purpose of life as propagated by other schools of philosophy including Astika darshanas.

Jaina Philosophy:

The origins of Jaina faith is pre historic and the philosophy is handed down by twenty four Tirthankaras (liberated propagators of faith) last being Vardhamana also known as Mahaveera, a contemporary of Gauthama Budha.  They also do not believe in Veda Pramana but differ with Charvakas as far as perception is concerned and four elements by direct perception with Ether by inference.  They also believe in time (kala) since changes of succession of states of substances without it is not possible. They are called as Dharma and adharma (not in a moral sense) but technical sense of motion and rest.

Existence of soul in all bodies (combination of four matters and two sentient beings) is believed through perception.  Consciousness is  not a product of matter, but the existence of soul is inferred as a guiding force. There are as many souls as there are living bodies not only in animals, but plants and even in particles of dust, though all the souls are not equally conscious.

Souls are obstructed from attaining infinite consciousness due to force of passions and desires like attracting particles of matter which permeate the soul.  Karmas led to bondage of soul by matter. Three things needed are faith in teaching of Jina who is a liberated soul, correct knowledge of teachings and right conduct of austerities which include abstinence from injury to life, false hood, from stealing, sensuality and attachment to sense objects.

Souls attains its natural perfection leading to infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and bliss being state of liberation.  Jaina philosophy is a kind of realism and pluralism because it believes in many ultimate reality.  Denies existence of God and permanence of soul.

Baudha philosophy:

Awakened to a consciousness of human suffering due to sight of disease, old age, death and other miseries and after years of study, penance and meditation, Gauthama discovered the origin of sufferings and means to over come them. 

Four noble truths (chatvari arya satyani) - that there is misery, there is cause of misery, there is cessation of misery and there is a path leading to its cessation.  The first truth is accepted in some form or other by all philosophical schools.  Even what appears as pleasant is really a source of pain as per Budha and he saw that the misery is not simply causal’ but present in all beings.  Due to his causation theory, nothing is unconditional and self-existent and therefore ther is nothing which is permanent in the world.  The cause of suffering being desire (tanha and trsna) for worldly objects and desires caused due to ignorance.  With right knowledge we can avoid suffering as per Budha.

The path leading to cessation is known as eight-fold noble path right view, right determination, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right endeavour, right mindfulness and right concentration. Not only suffering ceases but also re birth stopped attaining a state of perfection which is Nirvana.  No meta physical speculation is made and Budha gave a simple methodology to remove suffering. 

All things are conditional and there is nothing exist by itself; all things are subject to change and nothing is permanent; there is neither any soul nor God nor any other permanent substance; there is continuity of present life which generates another life by the law of Karma, like a tree generates another tree through seed.

On the basis of religious maters Hinayana (Ceylon, Burma and Siam) and Mahayana, in the north, Tibet, China and Japan.  The object of Nirvana is to put an end to own misery as per Hinayana and the other school, Mahayana believes that it’s for obtaining perfect wisdom which the liberated can work for salvation of all beings in misery.

Nyaya System:

Propounded by sage Gautma/Gotama (Talvakara system) and a realistic philosophy purely based on logic.  Four separate sources of knowledge, pratyaksha, anumana, upamana and sabda pramana (direct perception through senses, inference by knowledge of objects, comparison and testimony of authoritative persons like scientists.

The objects of knowledge are the Self, the body, the senses and their objects (cognition, mind, activity, mental defects, re birth, feelings of pleasure and pain, suffering and freedom from suffering. 

Body is composite substance made up of matter and mind is a subtle, indivisible and eternal substance (anu) serving the soul as an instrument for the perception of psychic qualities like pleasure, pain etc.,  Self is a distinct substance quite different from mind and body and it acquires the attribute of consciousness wh related to an object through the senses.  Consciousness is not an essential quality but accidental or adventitious quality which ceases to qualify in the state of mukthi.

Existence of God is proved by arguments like cause of creation by eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls.  The world is created in order that individual souls (jivas) might enjoy pleasure or suffer pain as per merit or demerit of their actions.  All things of the world are made up of parts and hence must have a karta who created with super intelligence.   The individual selves cannot make or create they have limited power and knowledge.

Vaishesika system:

Propounded by sage Kanada also named as Uluka.  Ally of Nyaya and has same end in view with seven categories of substance (Dravya), quality (guna) action (karma), geneality (samanaya) particularity (visesa), the relation of inherence (samavaya) and non existence (abhava).

Substance is substratum of qualities and activities but different from both.  Nine kind of substances earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind.  First five are physical (bhutas) and has qualities like smell, taste, colour, tough and sound. 

The first four are composed four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire and air which are invisible and indestructible particles of matter.  Atoms are uncreated and eternal entities which we get by resolving any material object into smaller and smaller parts till we come to such a state which cannot be further divided.

Akasa, space and time are imperceptible substances and eternal and all pervading.  Mind is not all pervading but an eternal substance infinitely small like an atom.  It is the internal sense which is directly or indirectly concerned with psychical functions like cognition, feeling and willing.  Mind being atomic, we cannot have more than one experience one instant of time.

Supreme soul or God is inferred as creator of world of effects out of eternal atoms.  Composition and decomposition of atoms explain origin, destruction of objects on the basis of will of God as per law of karma.  Atoms are made to compose that befits the unseen moral deserts (adrsta) of individual and serves the purpose of moral dispensation.  Atomic theory of vaisesikas is more teleological than mechanistic materialistic like other atomic theories. 

24 qualities noted are colour, taste, smell, touch, sound, number, magnitude, distinctness, conjunction, disjunction, remoteness, nearness, fluidity, viscidity, cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, striving, heaviness, tendency, merit and demerit, and all these exist in a substance. Action is a movement,  like quality, belongs to substances.  Five kinds of action noted and related to different objects.

Sankhya System:

Dualistic realism attributed to sage Kapila admit two ultimate realities Purusha and Prakrithi which are independent of each other in respect of their existence. Purusha is an intelligent principle of which consciousness (Chaitanya) is not an attribute, but the very essence.  It is the self which is quite distinct from body, sense and mind. Eternal consciousness which witnesses changes and activities going on in the world but does not change in itself. 

Prakrithi is the ultimate cause of world and an eternal unconscious principle (jada) which is always changing and has no other end than the satisfaction of selves.  Three gunas are the chief constituents of prakrithi which hold them together in a state of equilibrium (samyavastha) and these three substantial elements cause pleasure, pain and indifference which we see in the world.

Cause and effect are essential identical and the effect is manifested condition of cause.  Effect manifests what is already contained in the seeds.  The things of the world are effects which have the qualities of pleasure, pain and indifference.

Evolution of the world has its starting point in the association (samyoga) of purusha with prakriti which disturbs the original equilibrium and moves it to action.  From Prakriti arises mahat, and the consciousness of self is reflected on this and makes it appear as conscious.  It represent awakening of nature from cosmic slumber and the first appearance of thought , called as Intellect.  Ahanakara, second product arises by further transformation of intellect and creates I ness.  From Ahankar and with excess element of satva arise s five organs of knowledge and five organs of action and mind.

With increase in tamas, ahankara produce five subtle elements (tanmatras) which are the potentialities of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell.  From five subtle elements, five gross elements of akasha, air, fir, water and earth appear.  There are twenty-five principles in sankhya of these all but the purusha is comprised by prakriti which is the cause of ultimate source of all physical objects including mind, matter and life.

Although the self in itself free and immortal, due to influence of Avidya it confues itself with body, senses and mind.  Once this is realised with Viveka jnana, self-ceases to be affected by joys and sorrows, ups and downs of life.  Being a dispassionate observer without being attached, the state of liberation is achieved during life time (Jeevan mukthi).

The theistic belief of God or creator is not proved in anyway and hence Prakriti is the adequate cause of the world as a whole and God as eternal and unchanging spirit cannot be the creator of the world, for to produce an effect the cause must change and transform itself into effect. 

Yoga System:

Propounded by sage Pathanjali is closely allied with Sankhya accepting epistemology and meta physics of Sankhya with 25 principles, but also admits existence of God.  Yoga as a means of attainment of Viveka jnana or discriminative knowledge is essential condition of liberation.

Cessation of five chitta nivrittis and five levels of mental functions are studied. Ksipta, mudha, Vishipta, ekagra and niruddha are five mental functions.  Eight steps in (Yogangaa) the practice of Yoga being Yama, Niyama…

This system is theistic as distinct from Kapila sankhya which is based on Nirisvara vada.  God as highest object of contemplation for concentration and self-realisation.  Existence of God is proved with gounds: whatever degrees must have a maximum, which is a perfect knowledge or omniscience.  He who has omniscience is God.  Association of Purusha with prakriti is what initiates the evolution of world and the cessation leads to dissolution.  Neither the association nor the dissociation is naturel to prakriti and purusua and there must be a supreme being who is able to bring about these relations.